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There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia pain medication for dogs on prednisone 40mg imdur with amex, including age myofascial pain treatment center virginia generic 40mg imdur visa, drug use chronic pelvic pain treatment guidelines buy imdur 20 mg cheap, exercise ocean view pain treatment center cheap imdur 40 mg free shipping, mental status, and bedtime routines. Not surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several different approaches. Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help sufferers of insomnia. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were effectively treated. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below (Broughton et al. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). Other Parasomnias A person with restless leg syndrome has uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep.

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Or pain home treatment buy imdur 20 mg low cost, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent In 48 Chapter 2 Psychological Research addition pain medication for dogs dose order imdur discount, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time xiphisternum pain treatment purchase imdur canada, money best pain treatment for shingles purchase 20 mg imdur with mastercard, and a good dose of luck. An excellent example of structured observation comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this in the chapter on lifespan development). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability: a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally (Figure 2. Generally, the survey itself can be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people. Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods. A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a population, which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in. Researchers study the sample and seek to generalize their findings to the population. Generally, researchers will begin this process by calculating various measures of central tendency from the data they have collected. The mode is the most frequently occurring response, the median lies at the middle of a given data set, and the mean is the arithmetic average of all data points. Means tend to be most useful in conducting additional analyses like those described below; however, means are very sensitive to the effects of outliers, and so one must be aware of those effects when making assessments of what measures of central tendency tell us about a data set in question. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability. Therefore, if our sample is sufficiently large and diverse, we can assume that the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study. However, given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good. Jenkins and colleagues wanted to determine to what extent these negative attitudes toward Arab-Americans still existed nearly a decade after the attacks occurred. The survey also asked indirect questions about how likely the participant would be to interact with a person of a given ethnicity in a variety of settings (such as, "How likely do you think it is that you would introduce yourself to a person of Arab-American descent The results of the research suggested that participants were unwilling to report prejudicial attitudes toward any ethnic group. However, there were significant differences between their pattern of responses to questions about social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to other ethnic groups: they indicated less willingness for social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to the other ethnic groups. This suggested that the participants harbored subtle forms of prejudice against Arab-Americans, despite their assertions that this was not the case (Jenkins et al. Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships. For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well as course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement. Archival research could provide important information 50 Chapter 2 Psychological Research about who is most likely to complete their education, and it could help identify important risk factors for struggling students (Figure 2. For one, the researcher employing archival research never directly interacts with research participants.

A growing body of evidence suggests that this flexibility means that people can deploy their attention to multiple targets pain treatment center of america buy cheap imdur line, can change attention neck pain treatment options purchase imdur in india, set pain management in uti purchase imdur 20mg, goals pain clinic treatment options imdur 40mg mastercard, or interpretation, can integrate ideas and use that integration to help solve problems, and so forth. This increased flexibility does not mean that their thinking is "loose" or unhinged or wanders, or must move from topic to topic, but rather that they can deploy their attention to multiple targets or change set, when they choose to do so. Nonetheless, some authors have reasoned that flexibility implies distractibility, as if attentional focus cannot be maintained, or is more difficult to maintain, in cases where flexibility is present. Thus, Dreisbach and Goschke (2004) have argued that people in positive affect will be less susceptible to perseveration. In other words, they assume that an influence that leads people to be more flexible, and not constrained to keep thinking about or responding to the same stimulus in the same way, will also lead people to be more easily distracted or unable to stay on target; and they predict that this will be the case for people in positive affect. In its simplest form, the argument would be something like saying that, because positive affect increases flexibility, and broadens perspective and/or focus of attention, it will carry a benefit when people need to change focus, but a cost when people need to stay on target. Those authors present data showing that positive affect does decrease perseveration (decreases the tendency to stay on a given task or target or response set when it is no longer appropriate) but that it also does increase distractibility, in the form of reaction time (though not errors) on a target stimulus, when the distractor stimulus consists of items that were previously correct but no longer represent correct answers (a failure of what they call "learned irrelevance"), or when the distractor is novel. Their definition of distractibility, however, is not what one would expect-it is not the simple inability to stay on target or keep the same frame of reference-but rather bears a complex relationship to the nature of the interfering stimulus. However, those authors distinguish between perseveration and this kind of distractibility. But, as discussed above, this is not what was found by, for example, Derryberry (1993). Rather, what was found was that positive affect led people to be able to perform well on secondary targets while at the same time showing no diminution in performance on the main targets. In addition, other authors have also found results that suggest that more is going on than a simple reciprocal relationship between flexibility and distractibility. For example, Kuhl and Kazen (1999) studied the influence of positive affect on Stroop interference. Therefore, in that task, two conflicting tendencies are activated, the tendency to report the color that the word is written in, and the tendency to read the word, which is the name of a different color (and which would produce an incorrect response). In order to respond correctly, the person must suppress the tendency to read the word, which is the dominant response, and which would produce the wrong answer. Reaction times to giving the correct response are measured in order to gauge amount of interference, called "Stroop interference," arising from that dominant tendency. Kuhl and Kazen (1999) reported that positive affect improves performance (reaction time) on this task and removes Stroop interference. This held true whether the potentially interfering stimuli were novel or previously correct (now incorrect) responses. The results reported by Kuhl and Kazen (1999) and Kazen and Kuhl (2005), and other authors, indicate that positive affect facilitates the processes that underlie improved performance on tasks such as the Stroop task-which include maintaining a difficult intention and inhibiting an unwanted response. This means that with positive affect, a difficult intention can be carried out, in the presence of an otherwise dominant response, with less increase in reaction time than is observed in the control group. This suggests that, when the context of the whole task is taken into account, positive affect, rather than causing distractibility, enables control. Thus, in tasks involving distraction and perseveration, it seems that processes of inhibition, activation, maintenance, monitoring, and intention must also be considered. But there is also countervailing evidence suggesting that positive affect allows deployment of attention to additional targets without interfering with performance on the primary targets. And there is also evidence suggesting that positive affect, compared with a control condition, removes Stroop interference, which indicates that people in positive affect are better than controls at maintaining a difficult intention and inhibiting unwanted responses. Similarly, this seems to be an issue that could be of substantial interest to consumer researchers and seems worth pursuing in a consumer context. Not only would it be important for consumer researchers to know whether positive affect increases distractibility, and if so how that plays out in a complex consumer context, but this seems to be one of those situations in which the rich stimulus context provided by realistic consumer tasks, stimuli, and settings might add to the theoretical understanding of the fundamental issue, as well. That is, it may be that in the abstract, or with a tedious task or meaningless distinction between two barely distinguishable stimuli, people in positive affect may appear to be distractible, because they may take a few additional milliseconds to respond (however, the contradictory evidence reported by other authors should also be kept in mind). While it may be possible to argue that something like this is the meaning of "distractible," it seems more likely that such a context-induced effect would not be what most people would mean when they say that a person is distractible. We do know that people in positive affect are more likely to do what they prefer to do.

In a background music study joint pain treatment in hindi buy discount imdur line, Schlosser (1998) found that only social identity and not utilitarian product evaluations were influenced by retail atmospherics running knee pain treatment 20mg imdur mastercard. Here back pain treatment upper buy imdur toronto, music was only one element of the retail atmosphere that fit with the other elements to convey either a prestige or a discount environment pain medication for dogs advil order 20mg imdur mastercard. Whether a sensory element fit with an advertisement has been manipulated with music (Kellaris, Cox, & Cox, 1993; McInnis & Park, 1991) and touch (Peck & Wiggins, forthcoming). Environmental Factors While individual and product differences have been studied in consumer behavior, the majority of research involves manipulating elements of the environment to determine various consumer processing and behavior effects. Since scent and music are often ambient, it follows that an environmental manipulation is logical. Much of the research in scent and music falls into the retail atmospherics category and will be discussed first. Similarly, the opportunity to touch has been manipulated, sometimes in the context of online versus in-store shopping environments. Finally, notions of fit or congruency of the environment and various sensory elements will be discussed. Sensory elements have been manipulated along with social cues and the density of the retail environment (scent, Michon et al. Music has also been shown to influence mood, which influences product choice (Gorn, 1982), especially when a shopper is not aware of the source of their mood (Gorn et al. An active area of research concerns sensory stimuli in retail environments and actual time shopping or waiting as well as time perceptions (Antonides et al. Similarly, pleasant music has shown to result in longer perceived wait times (Antonides et al. The choice of a generic or store brand versus a national brand can be influenced by in-store sampling (Bellizzi & Martin, 1982; Sprott & Shrimp, 2004), but brand awareness can limit the choices sampled and the quality of the choice (Hoyer & Brown, 1990). An in-store distraction when tasting can also increase the purchase likelihood of the sampled food (Nowlis & Shiv, 2005; Shiv & Nowlis, 2004). In touch research, environmental salience of touch has been manipulated through a point of purchase sign encouraging touch (Peck & Childers, forthcoming). The opportunity to touch has been manipulated, and researchers have examined types of compensation for when touch is unavailable (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003; Peck & Childers, 2003a). Hornik (1992) brings together taste and touch by examining the influence of interpersonal touch and in-store sampling (Study 3) and finds that unobtrusive interpersonal touch increased compliance behavior (larger number of people sampled). Similar to product/stimuli factors, the notion of fit or congruency has been an active area of study. Krishna finds that the elongation bias is visual, and touch or haptic exploration reversed this bias. Russell (2002) noted that a congruency between type of product placement (audio or visual) and how embedded the placement is in the script differentially influenced memory and persuasion. While memory was enhanced for incongruity, persuasion was enhanced for congruency. Other elements of fit or congruency that have been investigated concern the fit of scent and music (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001, Spangenberg et al. Following this synthesis of past research studies, we next consider some significant gaps that emerge from our review and discuss their potential for future research on sensory factors on consumer behavior. In the area of taste discrimination, it appears that some individuals may have greater sensitivity to variations in taste, or a greater ability to determine differences. However, in touch research, the focus has been on the motivation or preference for touch information by different individuals. Similarly, a preference for visual versus verbal information has been documented (Heckler, Childers, & Houston, 1993). A logical step in sensory research would be to identify whether sensitivity to one type of sensory input translates to other types of sensory information. For example, women have been found to be more affected by scent (Bone & Ellen, 1999), music (Grewal et al. Do the individuals with a preference for a type of sensory information also have a greater ability or sensitivity to that type of information Are people that are motivated to obtain one type of sensory input generally motivated to explore with their other senses as well Perhaps taste and touch, being more direct senses are related more than smell and hearing.

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