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Dubai has labored in recent years to shrug off its post-9/11 image as a cashpoint and playground for terrorists and criminals menstrual discomfort buy discount premarin 0.625mg, but the fact remains that funds for the 9/11 hijackers and the East African embassy bombers were transferred through the city breast cancer hair bows buy premarin 0.625 mg overnight delivery. Tribes and Kinship Networks One common theme that links a number of the key attributes of a criminal hub is a certain tendency to dismiss the prerogatives and institutions of state power as somewhat arbitrary women's health clinic oakdale ca purchase generic premarin on line, or even irrelevant pregnancy over 35 purchase premarin online now. Just as porous border areas and breakaway republics signify the absurdity of the lines and boundaries of official cartography in the face of very different facts on the ground, a common feature in many criminal hubs is the existence of tribal or kinship networks, and the power structures and struggles associated with them, which have a tendency to trump the authority of the state. Much of the expansion of transnational criminal networks in recent decades was driven by loosely dispersed diasporic networks. From the former Yugoslavia to the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan, transnational criminal actors may find a congenial base of operations in what the Library of Congress study characterized as "societies based on family and clan ties that have resisted the rule of law. State Capture, Rogue States, and the Criminal State One final factor that is worth mentioning is the propensity for some states to become either so thoroughly corrupted or so alienated from the international system that they do not merely abet criminal activity but actively perpetuate or even authorize and control it. Government trucks reportedly transport the opium harvested in North Hamgyong province to a factory outside Pyongyang where it is processed by a government-owned firm. To date, studies of illicit networks have tended to focus either on a kind of mile-wide and inch-deep perusal of the broad contours of the globalization of crime, or alternatively, on inch-wide and mile-deep examinations of the particular characteristics of specific countries or illegal trades. But as the study of illicit networks broadens and matures, the geography of the illicit global economy should merit further research. Identifying the attributes of criminal hubs, and distinguishing them from terrorist safe havens, can serve an important function for scholars (in clarifying our understanding of the dynamics of black markets and the migration of crime) and for practitioners (in suggesting law enforcement and diplomatic responses). A close study of illicit economic hubs may occasionally suggest shifting our focus from one problem area to another. Just as aid money disappearing from Afghanistan is funneled to the hub in Dubai, a close study of the financial networks of Somali pirates might lead not to the failed state of Somalia, but rather to Kenya where the ransom proceeds are often invested. Nor should Americans be surprised if, in pursuing the links of the illicit economy, they find themselves confronted by major hubs that may be familiar: New York, Atlanta, or Los Angeles, for instance. Until quite recently, Wachovia Bank, which is now part of Wells Fargo, was serving as a major facilitator for Mexican drug cartels. So in identifying and reforming the hubs of the shadow economy, we must be careful not to neglect our own. Simultaneously, these same catalysts have allowed bad actors to enrich themselves at the expense of the prosperity, security, and integrity of the global community. These actors, and the illicit networks in which they typically function, actively seek out governance gaps, socioeconomic vulnerabilities, and character weaknesses as openings to conduct their nefarious activities and expand their power and influence throughout the world. While we know that illicit networks are enabled by multiple factors, financing is essential for anything they do and enhances their power. Money is the oxygen that brings the activities to life of any licit or illicit organization. Finances sustain these entities and provide a window-and perhaps a vulnerable entry point-into these shadowy organizations. In combating threat finance and associated networks, the international community must collaborate and employ all the instruments of national power to dismantle, degrade, disrupt, and deter illicit networks. These instruments include diplomatic, military, intelligence, information, law enforcement, economic, and financial tools that can be applied alone or in combination to counter national security 111 Lindholm and Realuyo threats including transnational crime, terrorism, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Such countermeasures have been successfully leveraged at the local, national, and international levels to combat and degrade illicit networks around the globe; however, these must be continually revamped to keep up with the resourcefulness of illicit actors as they adapt to and circumvent countermeasures. This chapter focuses on financing as an enabler of all things illicit and the financial front of efforts to combat illicit networks. We will begin with an overview of the threat posed by illicit finance and how illicit actors raise, move, and hide their money. Subsequently, national and international strategies to combat threat finance through law enforcement and intelligence operations, public designations, international cooperation, and capacity-building programs will be examined. We will demonstrate how "following the money trail" enhances law enforcement investigations and intelligence analyses to root out illicit actors and their financiers. Finally, we will underscore the importance of recognizing threat finance as a key enabler of illicit networks and the critical need to combat illicit finance. The Nature of Threat Finance Threat finance encompasses money laundering and terrorist financing by illicit networks and endangers the integrity of financial systems around the world. The participation of organized criminals in licit markets undermines legitimate competition and market reliability and transparency. Their laundering activities and use of violence, fraud, and corruption create an unfair competitive advantage that drives out honest businesspeople while distorting and possibly destabilizing strategic markets. Department of the Treasury, money laundering generally refers to financial transactions by which criminals, including terrorist organizations, disguise their identities and the proceeds, sources, and nature of their illicit activities.

Government report that used a similar methodology to obtain an estimate of $193 billion menstruation breast pain premarin 0.625 mg visa. The cost estimate of $181 billion in 2002 (about $650 per capita) is roughly equivalent to 1 menstruation lunar cycle generic 0.625mg premarin otc. As the United States has a more severe drug abuse problem than most nations menstrual migraine headaches safe 0.625 mg premarin, we must use a different percentage for other nations pregnancy labor and delivery order premarin 0.625mg. If we take as a very rough approximation an average worldwide cost outside the United States of 0. We may alternatively make the assumption that the national cost of drug abuse is proportional to market size. Therefore, the worldwide economic cost of drugs would be $516 billion (that is, $193 billion divided by 37. Counterfeiting Many of the economic costs of counterfeiting are difficult to capture. Furthermore, we showed that the current estimates of the global market in counterfeit goods are not reliable. Even if they were, they do not measure the actual illegal market size and revenues of traffickers since counterfeits can be sold at a considerably lower price than genuine goods. In the absence of any valid number, a lower boundary can be inferred from what companies and institutions pay to protect themselves from counterfeiting: the market size is estimated in 2011 at approximately $15 billion in 2011 for security printing44 and $2 billion for brand protection devices,45 for a total of $17 billion. While it is obvious that counterfeiting imposes a much larger cost on society, the lack of reliable data and studies makes it very difficult to derive an overall cost. We may attempt to develop an estimate of the direct impacts of counterfeit medications. Artesunate is the only affordable and effective medication that can cure parcifarum malaria, a particularly deadly form of the disease found in Southeast Asia. A report uses a rough estimate of the percentage of counterfeit medications and the probability that untreated sick people will die from a given disease, to infer that for malaria, 250,000 people would die per year from counterfeit medications. While we stress that this is a rough estimate and the overall impact of counterfeit and substandard medications is far from being fully understood, those 700,000 deaths remain a reasonable calculation based on the available evidence. Human Trafficking As we have seen earlier, human trafficking generates revenue at $32 billion per year. Regarding direct impacts, a lower bound would be to consider the revenue of $32 billion of which victims of human trafficking are deprived. But a more accurate economic valuation of the harm might be to consider that victims are deprived of one year of quality life. Recent research shows that one year of quality life is worth on average $129,000 in the United States, that is, 2. Excised Goods Each illicit package corresponds to a direct and precisely known loss of tax revenue. Government losses can be directly inferred from statistics on the number of illicit products on the market. The main other direct impact is related to public health: a report on tobacco taxation, using a transparent model that incorporates price elasticity of demand, calculates that if the illicit trade in tobacco was eliminated, consumption would drop by 2 percent. Given the estimated $193 billion per year in healthcare expenditures and productivity loss from smoking in the United States,51 a 2 percent drop in consumption would be worth close to $4 billion per year. On a worldwide basis, 2 percent of an estimated $500 billion each year in healthcare expenditures, productivity losses, and other costs52 would be worth $10 billion per year. Regarding indirect impacts, we assume that organized crime captures 50 percent 54 Global Scale and Impact of Illicit Trade of the $50 billion in lost excise taxes (that is, illicit cigarettes are sold at half the regular price), and therefore makes a revenue of $25 billion. Environmental Crime To estimate the indirect impacts, one may add the estimates we reviewed for illegal logging (9 percent of $190 billion, or $17 billion), illegal fishing (20. Using the cost of crime ratio, this results in crime-related impacts of $75 billion. Calculating direct impacts of human activity on the environment, whether resulting from illicit activities or not, is a daunting task. To obtain an order of magnitude of these impacts, we suggest a generic approach that does not get into the specifics of a given environmental crime. It consists of using a first estimate for the total yearly value brought by ecosystem services, a second estimate for the rate of depletion of these ecosystems, and a third estimate on the proportion of that depletion caused by environmental crimes. The multiplication of these three values provides a rough approximation of the direct permanent losses caused by one year of environmental crimes.

The surplus economic value that is extracted by Chinese capital may be externalized in the form of profit remittances back home and some of it could be spent on conspicuous consumption women's health magazine weight loss tips order premarin 0.625 mg with visa. No wonder why Andre Gunder Frank (1967) thought that the only way to manage the exploitative relationship was through a political revolution pregnancy loss order discount premarin online. Modernity correctly notes that technology is one of the major avenues through which monopoly capital penetrates and integrates the economies of Africa into the Chinese capitalist system menopause diet plan order premarin 0.625 mg free shipping. Marxists have argued that the difference between the modern world and Africa is purely technological and determined by the international division of labour breast cancer quotes tumblr discount premarin 0.625 mg line. In other words, the West produce manufactured goods for itself and Africa while the later produce raw material for the West and for its large subsistence sector. Instead it places value on externally sourced aid without attending to the inhibiting conditionalities attached to such aid. There has to be a paradigm shift if Africa is to reclaim its right to chat a new way to development. The dependency theory Discontentment with the modernization theory in the 1950s precipitated new strands of thinking which resulted in the dependency theory. Andre Gunder Frank (1967), in his analysis of the post colonial state, has argued that classical development theories such as modernity are misleading in that they fail to articulate the true relationship between the developed world and the poor regions of the world. For Frank, modernity distorts the truth about the motive of the developed countries on their former colonies. Social anthropologists consider the dependency theory to be both pessimistic and structural. At macro level, the main premise of the structural dependency theory is that it would be impossible to understand the processes and problems of Africa without considering the wider socio-historical context of Western European expansion (industrial and mercantile capitalism) and the colonization of these places by the Western economies (Frank, 1969). According to Rodney (1972), colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits made in Africa to the so called home land. From a dependency perspective repatriation of profits represents a systematic expatriation of the surplus values that was created by African labour using African resources. Hence the development of Europe can be viewed as part of the same dialectical processes that underdeveloped Africa. In other words, the domination of Europe over Africa retarded the economic development of the continent. The above situation is succinctly expressed by Rodney (1972:149) whose analysis of the relationship between Europe and Africa is that during colonialism, Europe organized herself, accumulated capital gained from her colonies in Africa, shrewdly invested the surplus in productive economy, steadfastly increasing national wealth and riches for its people. Africa was and continues to be dominated economically as well as politically by external centres of power. Most noticeable here is the economic, political and cultural dependence of the continent upon America and Europe. Writing about the situation in Southern Africa, Samir et al (1987:2) noted: "Imperialists partitioned the countries in Africa and then forced the African peasantry into reserves, deliberately planned to be inadequate for the purposes of ensuring the failure of subsistence in earlier traditional forms. The discovery of the mineral riches of Southern Africa (such as gold and diamonds in South Africa, copper in Katanga in Zambia) just when capitalism was entering a new stage of monopolistic expansion inspired a particular form of colonization of the economy of the reserves". The above contribution shows that while Europe and America are busy exploiting Africa; the urban areas are also busy exploiting their rural areas. Within those rural areas one finds rich people exploiting poor individuals and the chain goes on and on. The economic development of rural areas signifies the establishment of metropolitan-satellite relationship at different levels in the socio-economic structure of the economy. The relationship is based upon regional control of economic and political resources between regions, sectors of the economy and different social groups (Nyerere, 1973; Gabriel, 1991). Accordingly, the underdevelopment of Lower Gweru, Chibi, Mhondoro Chirumanzi and many more districts in Zimbabwe and Amathole District in South Africa is squarely a result of this exploitation. In the same vein, the poverty of an individual worker is a result of the exploitation of that particular individual by the system or the employer. Thus poverty at all levels is attributable to inhibiting relationships (internal colonialism) between the developed communities (urban areas) and their satellites (rural areas) and also between individuals with different economic powers. The relationship is one in which a metropolis or center exerts pressure upon its satellite or periphery. The pillage of resources from Africa continues to exacerbate poverty on the continent and rural communities suffer the most.

Policy: Because of the wide variation of circumstances women's health issues in louisiana discount 0.625 mg premarin with amex, requests for the use of radiation for the purpose of immunosuppression require medical review menstrual blood purchase premarin master card. Infections (bacterial) In the antibiotic era women's health center madison wi purchase generic premarin from india, there is no recognized indication for the use of radiation therapy in the treatment of bacterial infections menstrual uterine contractions discount 0.625mg premarin with mastercard. Infections (fungal and parasitic) the experimental use of radiation to treat an unusual and rare fungal and parasitic disorders, such as ocular histoplasmosis and cerebral cisticercosis has been reported in the literature. Infections (viral) Past treatment of viral conditions such as condyloma, herpes zoster, and warts is mentioned for historical perspective and completeness. Policy: Cases will require medical review and documentation that non-radiation alternatives have been exhausted. Inflammatory (Acute/chronic) disorders not responsive (furuncles, carbuncles, sweat gland abscesses). The German review of 2002 lists them as potential indications, however elsewhere this opinion is not supported. Inverted papilloma the treatment of choice is surgical resection of these usually benign lesions of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. However, a malignant component is found in a small percentage of cases, and radiation therapy is then indicated. In cases of incomplete resection or suspected malignant component, radiation therapy is considered medically necessary. Keloid Scar Data is abundant that a few fractions of a relatively small amount of radiation will reduce the chance of recurrence after a keloid is resected. This is medically necessary when other means are less appropriate or have proven ineffective. Typical radiation treatment utilizes superficial x-ray, electron beam, or complex photon beam therapy in four or fewer fractions. Keratitis (bullous and filamentary) Bullous and filamentary keratitis were listed in the 1977 U. Department of Health, Education and Welfare as entities for which radiation therapy was sometimes appropriate. Current literature does not support the use of radiation for either form of keratitis. Langerhans cell histiocytosis the literature has consistently supported the use of radiation therapy for treatment of this disorder over the time period studied. Chemotherapy is commonly utilized when treatment is necessary, with radiation more commonly used to treat localized growths. Lymphangiomas There are four types: capillary; cavernous; cystic hygromas; and lymphangeal hemangiomas. In rare instances, radiation therapy may be appropriate for refractory lesions with repeated recurrence after resection. These may cause a chylous effusion if there is pleural involvement, in which case radiation therapy may be useful in managing chylothorax. Lethal Midline Granuloma this is a progressive, destructive process which involves the mid-facial structures. It has been considered a benign entity, may mimic other lymphoproliferative processes, requires caution in diagnosis, and may be a malignant T-cell disorder. Alternative therapy may be more appropriate, but radiation therapy is considered appropriate for management of localized presentations or in conjunction with systemic therapy. Department of Health, Education and Welfare as an entity for which radiation therapy was sometimes appropriate. Macular degeneration There was great optimism that age related wet macular degeneration could be controlled by the use of radiation therapy to arrest the progression of choroidal neovascularization. Newer approaches to the use of radiation therapy, such as epimacular brachytherapy and stereotactic radiosurgery are being investigated as alternatives or as complementary methods so as to reduce the frequency of intraocular injections. Until the results of these studies are known, the appropriateness of using radiation is unproven. However, when surgery is technically not possible or is medically contraindicated, radiation therapy is regarded as an appropriate treatment for primary or recurrent lesions. Other indications include postoperative treatment of high grade lesions and for incompletely resected ones. Mikulicz Syndrome (salivary lymphoepithelial lesion) Once other etiologies are ruled out, such as malignant lymphoma and infection, the use of low doses of radiation to treat this lymphoepithelial growth in salivary tissue has been reported as effective in older literature. Myasthenia gravis (see thymoma) © 2019 eviCore healthcare.

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